Persian language

Persian
Farsi فارسی
Farsi in Persian script (Nastaʿlīq style).
Pronunciation	[fɒːɾˈsiː]
Native to	Iran[1] Afghanistan[1](as Dari) Tajikistan[1](as Tajik) Uzbekistan Iraq Pakistan[1] Bahrain Azerbaijan[2] (See list of all countries)
Native speakers	60 million  (2009)[2] (110 million total speakers)[2]
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Iranian Western Iranian Southwestern Iranian Persian
Early forms:	Old Persian Middle Persian Persian
Dialects	Western Persian Eastern Persian Central Asian Persian Bukharic Pahlavani Hazaragi Aimaq Judæo-Persian Dehwari Juhuri[2] Caucasian Tat[2] Armeno-Tat[2]
Writing system	Arabic (Persian alphabet) Cyrillic (Tajik alphabet) Hebrew script Persian Braille
Official status
Official language in	Iran  Afghanistan  Tajikistan
Regulated by	Academy of Persian Language and Literature (Iran) Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan
Language codes
ISO 639-1	fa
ISO 639-2	per (B) fas (T)
ISO 639-3	fas – inclusive code Individual codes: pes – Western Persian prs – Eastern Persian tgk – Tajiki aiq – Aimaq bhh – Bukharic haz – Hazaragi jpr – Dzhidi phv – Pahlavani deh – Dehwari jdt – Juhuri ttt – Caucasian Tat
Linguasphere	58-AAC (Wider Persian) > 58-AAC-c (Central Persian)
Approximate extent of the Persian language area. Map includes all three dialects of Persian.
This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.

Persian (Persian: فارسی/پارسی Fārsi [fɒːɾˈsiː]) is an Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is primarily spoken in Iran (Persia) (locally referred to as Parsi^{[citation needed]} or Farsi), Afghanistan (officially known as "Dari Persian" since 1958 for political reasons^[3]), Tajikistan (officially known as "Tajik," having been renamed during the Soviet era for political reasons),^[4] and other countries which historically came under Persian influence. The Persian language is classified as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanid Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Persian Empire in the Achaemenid era.^[5][6][7] Persian is a pluricentric language and its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages.^[8]

There are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan. For centuries Persian has also been a prestigious cultural language in Central Asia, South Asia, and Western Asia.^[9] Persian is used as a liturgical language of Islam in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan.

Persian has had a considerable, mainly lexical influence on neighboring languages, particularly the Turkic languages in Central Asia, Caucasus, and Anatolia, neighboring Iranian languages, as well as Armenian, and Indo-Aryan languages, especially Urdu. It also exerted some influence on Arabic, particularly Iraqi Arabic and Khuzestani Arabic, while borrowing much vocabulary from it after the Muslim conquest of Persia.^{[5][8][10][11][12][13]}

With a long history of literature in the form of Middle Persian before Islam, Persian was the first language in Muslim civilization to break through Arabic’s monopoly on writing, and the writing of poetry in Persian was established as a court tradition in many eastern courts.^[9] Some of the famous works of Persian literature are the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, works of Rumi (Mowlana), Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, Divan of Hafiz and poems of Saadi.

Classification

Persian belongs to the Western branch of the Iranian family of Indo-European languages, which also includes Kurdish, Mazandarani, Gilaki, Talyshi, and Baluchi. The language is in the Southwestern Iranian group, along with the Larestani and Luri languages.^[14]

Name

Local

The term Persian often refers to three groups of dialects:

• Farsi (فارسی‎ fārsi)^[15] is the local name of the language in Iran, and is sometimes used in English instead of the word Persian when referring to the language. Parsi (پارسی‎ pārsi) is a variant of this name.^{[clarification needed]}
• Dari (دری‎ darī)^[16] is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan;^[17]
• Tajik (тоҷикӣ / تاجیکی‎ tojikī)^[18] is a group of dialects spoken in Central Asia.^[19]

English

Persian, the more widely used name of the language in English historically, is an anglicized form derived from Latin *Persianus < Latin Persia < Greek Πέρσις Pérsis, a Hellenized form of Old Persian Parsa. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century.^[20] Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi.^[21] Farsi is the arabicized form of Pārsi, due to a lack of the 'p' phoneme in Standard Arabic (i.e., the 'p' was replaced with an 'f').^[22][23] The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars is, of course, the arabicized form of Pârs. In English, this language is historically known as "Persian", though some Persian speakers migrating to the West continued to use "Farsi" to identify their language in English and the word gained some currency in English-speaking countries.^[24] "Farsi" is encountered in some linguistic literature as a name for the language, used both by Iranian and by foreign authors.^[25] According to the OED, the term Farsi was first used in English in 1926, while Parsi dates to 1790.^[21] The Academy of Persian Language and Literature has declared that the name "Persian" is more appropriate, as it has the longer tradition in the western languages and better expresses the role of the language as a mark of cultural and national continuity.^[26] Some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of "Farsi" in their articles.^[27][28]

The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code "fa", as its coding system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name "Persian" (code "fas") for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan. This consists of the individual languages Dari (Afghan Persian) and Iranian Persian.^[29][30][31]

Currently, VOA, BBC, DW, and RFE/RL use "Persian Service" for their broadcasts in the language. RFE/RL also includes a Tajik service, and an Afghan (Dari) service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, and many of the leading scholars of Persian language.^[32]

History

Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. In general, Iranian languages are known from three periods, usually referred to as Old, Middle, and New (Modern) periods. These correspond to three eras in Iranian history; Old era being the period from sometime before Achaemenids, the Achaemenid era and sometime after Achaemenids (that is to 400–300 BC), Middle era being the next period most officially Sassanid era and sometime in post-Sassanid era, and the New era being the period afterwards down to present day.^[33]

According to available documents, the Persian language is "the only Iranian language"^[5][34] for which close philological relationships between all of its three stages are established and so that Old, Middle, and New Persian represent^[5][35] one and the same language of Persian, that is New Persian is a direct descendent of Middle and Old Persian.^[35]

The known history of the Persian language can be divided into the following three distinct periods:

Old Persian

Old Persian evolved from Proto-Iranian as it evolved in the Iranian plateau's southwest. The earliest dateable example of the language is the Behistun Inscription of the Achaemenid Darius I (r. 522 BC–ca. 486 BC). Although purportedly older texts also exist (such as the inscription on the tomb of Cyrus II at Pasargadae), these are actually younger examples of the language. Old Persian was written in Old Persian cuneiform, a script unique to that language and is generally assumed to be an invention of Darius I's reign.

After Aramaic, or rather the Achaemenid form of it known as Imperial Aramaic, Old Persian is the most commonly attested language of the Achaemenid age. While examples of Old Persian have been found wherever the Achaemenids held territories, the language is attested primarily in the inscriptions of Western Iran, in particular in Parsa "Persia" in the southwest, the homeland of the tribes that the Achaemenids (and later the Sassanids) came from.

In contrast to later Persian, written Old Persian had an extensively inflected grammar, with eight cases, each declension subject to both gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and number (singular, dual, plural).

Middle Persian

The complex conjugation and declension of Old Persian yielded to the structure of Middle Persian in which the dual number disappeared, leaving only singular and plural, as did gender. Middle Persian used postpositions to indicate the different roles of words, for example an -i suffix to denote a possessive "from/of" rather than the multiple (subject to gender and number) genitive caseforms of a word.

Although the "middle period" of the Iranian languages formally begins with the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the transition from Old to Middle Persian had probably already begun before the 4th century. However, Middle Persian is not actually attested until 600 years later when it appears in Sassanid era (224–651) inscriptions, so any form of the language before this date cannot be described with any degree of certainty. Moreover, as a literary language, Middle Persian is not attested until much later, to the 6th or 7th century. And from the 8th century onwards, Middle Persian gradually began yielding to New Persian, with the middle-period form only continuing in the texts of Zoroastrian tradition.

The native name of Middle Persian was Parsig or Parsik, after the name of the ethnic group of the southwest, that is, "of Pars", Old Persian Parsa, New Persian Fars. This is the origin of the name Farsi as it is today used to signify New Persian. Following the collapse of the Sassanid state, Parsik came to be applied exclusively to (either Middle or New) Persian that was written in Arabic script. From about the 9th century onwards, as Middle Persian was on the threshold of becoming New Persian, the older form of the language came to be erroneously called Pahlavi, which was actually but one of the writing systems used to render both Middle Persian as well as various other Middle Iranian languages. That writing system had previously been adopted by the Sassanids (who were Persians, i.e. from the southwest) from the preceding Arsacids (who were Parthians, i.e. from the northeast). While Rouzbeh (Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa, 8th century) still distinguished between Pahlavi (i.e. Parthian) and Farsi (i.e. Middle Persian), this distinction is not evident in Arab commentaries written after that date.

Gernot Windfuhr considers new Persian as an evolution of the Old Persian language and the Middle Persian language^[2] but also states that none of the known Middle Persian dialects is the direct predecessor of the [New] Persian ^[36][37] Professor. Ludwig Paul states: "The language of the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance of continuous historical development from Middle to New Persian"^[38]

New Persian

from Ferdowsi's Shahnameh.

The history of New Persian itself spans more than 1,000–1,200 years. The development of the language in its last period is often divided into three stages dubbed early, classical, and contemporary. Native speakers of the language can in fact understand early texts in Persian with minimal adjustment, because the morphology and, to a lesser extent, the lexicon of the language have remained relatively stable for the most part of a millennium.^[39]

Early New Persian

New Persian developed from the 8th century on as an independent literary language.^[40] Upon the decline of the Caliphate at Baghdad in the ninth century a.d. began the re-establishment of Persian national life and Persians laid the foundations for a renaissance in the realm of letters. New Persian was born in Bactria through the adaptation of the spoken form of Sassanian Middle Persian court language called Dari. The cradle of the Persian literary renaissance lay in the Greater Khorasan region of Afghanistan.^[41]

The mastery of the newer speech having now been transformed from Middle- into New Persian was already complete during three princely dynasties of Iranian origin Tahirid (820–872), Saffarid (860–903) and Samanid (874–999), and could develop only in range and power of expression.^[41]

Abbas of Merv is mentioned as being the earliest minstrel to chant verse in the newer Persian tongue and after him the poems of Hanzala Badghisi were among the most famous between the Persian-speakers of the time.^[42]

The first poems of the Persian Language, a language historically called Dari, have emerged in Khorasan.^{[43][dubious – discuss]}. The first significant Persian poet was Rudaki. He flourished in the 10th century, when the Sāmānids were at the height of their power. His reputation as a court poet and as an accomplished musician and singer has survived, although little of his poetry has been preserved. Among his lost works is versified fables collected in Kalilah va Dimnah.^[9]

The language spread geographically from the 11th century on and was the medium through which among others, Central Asian Turks became familiar with Islam and urban culture. New Persian was widely used as a transregional lingua franca, a task for which it was particularly suitable due to its relatively simple morphological structure and this situation persisted until at least 19th century.^[40] In the late Middle Ages, new Islamic literary languages were created on the Persian model: Ottoman, Chaghatay and Urdu, which are regarded as "structural daughter languages" of Persian.^[40]

Classic Persian

Kalilah va Dimna, an influential work in Persian literature.

The Islamic conquest of Persia marks the beginning of the new history of Persian language and literature. This period produced world class Persian language poets and the language served, for a long span of time, as the lingua franca of the eastern parts of Islamic world and South Asia. It was also the official and cultural language of many Islamic dynasties, including Samanids, Buyids, Tahirids, Ziyarids, the Mughal Empire, Timurids, Ghaznavid, Seljuq, Khwarezmids, Safavid, Afsharids, Zand, Qajar, Ottomans and also many Mughal successor states such as the Nizams etc. For example, Persian was the only oriental language known and used by Marco Polo at the Court of Kublai Khan and in his journeys through China.^[44] The heavy influence of Persian on other languages can still be witnessed across the Islamic world, especially, and it is still appreciated as a literary and prestigious language among the educated elite, especially in fields of music (for example Qawwali) and art (Persian literature). After the Arab invasion of Persia, Persian began to adopt many words from Arabic and as time went by, a few words were even taken from Turko-Mongol languages under the Mongol Empire and Turco-Persian society.

Use in South Asia

Persian poem, Agra castle, India, 18th century

Persian poem, Takht-e Shah Jahan, Agra castle, India

For five centuries prior to the British colonization, Persian was widely used as a second language on the Indian subcontinent^{[citation needed][dubious – discuss]}. It took prominence as the language of culture and education in several Muslim courts on the subcontinent and became the sole "official language" under the Mughal emperors. Beginning in 1843, though, English gradually replaced Persian in importance on the subcontinent.^[45] Evidence of Persian's historical influence there can be seen in the extent of its influence on the languages of the Indian subcontinent, as well as the popularity that Persian literature still enjoys in that region. Words borrowed from Persian are still commonly used in Indo-Aryan languages, especially Urdu, also historically konwn as Hindustani.

Contemporary Persian

A variant of the Iranian standard ISIRI 9147 keyboard layout for Persian.

Since the nineteenth century, Russian, French and English and many other languages have contributed to the technical vocabulary of Persian. The Iranian National Academy of Persian Language and Literature is responsible for evaluating these new words in order to initiate and advise their Persian equivalents. The language itself has greatly developed during the centuries.

Varieties

There are three modern varieties of standard Persian:

• Western Persian (Persian, Iranian Persian, or Farsi) is spoken in Iran, and by minorities in Iraq and the Persian Gulf states.
• Eastern Persian (Dari Persian, Afghan Persian, or Dari) is spoken in Afghanistan.
• Tajiki (Tajik Persian) is spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. It is written in the Cyrillic script.

All these three varieties are based on the classic Persian literature and its literary tradition. There are also several local dialects from Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan which slightly differ from the standard Persian. Hazaragi (in Central Afghanistan and Pakistan), Herati (in Western Afghanistan), Darwazi (in Afghanistan and Tajikistan), Tehrani (in Iran, the basis of standard Iranian Persian) and Dehwari (in Pakistan) are examples of these dialects. Persian-speaking peoples of Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan can understand one another with a relatively high degree of mutual intelligibility, give or take minor differences in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar – much in the same relationship as shared between British and American English.

ISO 639-3 lists ten dialects of Persian, the three main literary dialects listed above and seven regional dialects: Hazaragi, Aimaq, Bukharic, Dzhidi, Dehwari, Darwazi, Pahlavani.^[46]

The following are some languages closely related to Persian:

• Luri (or Lori), spoken mainly in the southwestern Iranian provinces of Lorestan, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province, some western parts of Fars Province and some parts of Khuzestan.
• Tat, spoken in parts of Azerbaijan, Russia, etc. It includes Judæo-Tat & Christian-Tat.
• Lari (in southern Iran)

Phonology

Iranian Persian has six vowels and twenty-two consonants.

Vowels

The vowel phonemes of modern Tehran Persian

Historically, Persian has distinguished length: Early New Persian possessed a series of five long vowels (/iː/, /uː/, /ɒː/, /oː/ and /eː/) along with three short vowels /æ/, /i/ and /u/. At some point prior to the sixteenth century within the general area that is today encompassed by modern Iran, /eː/ and /iː/ merged into /iː/, and /oː/ and /uː/ merged into /uː/. Thus, the older contrasts such as shēr "lion" vs. shīr "milk," and rūd "river" vs rōd "bow-string" were lost. There are exceptions to this rule and in some words, "ē" and "ō" are preserved or merged into the diphthongs [eɪ] and [oʊ] (which are descendents of the diphthongs [æɪ] and [æʊ] in Early New Persian), instead of merging into /iː/ and /uː/. Examples of this exception can be found in words such as [roʊʃæn] (bright).

However, in the eastern varieties, the archaic distinction of /eː/ and /iː/ (respectively known as Yā-ye majhūl and Yā-ye ma'rūf) is still preserved, as well as the distinction of /oː/ and /uː/ (known as Wāw-e majhūl and Wāw-e ma'rūf). On the other hand, in standard Tajik, the length distinction has disappeared and /iː/ merged with /i/, and /uː/ with /u/.^[47] Therefore, contemporary Afghan dialects are the closest one can get to the vowel inventory of Early New Persian.

According to most studies on the subject (e.g. Samareh 1977, Pisowicz 1985, Najafi 2001), the three vowels which are traditionally considered long (/i/, /u/, /ɒ/) are currently distinguished from their short counterparts (/e/, /o/, /æ/) by position of articulation, rather than by length. However, there are studies (e.g. Hayes 1979, Windfuhr 1979) which consider vowel length to be the active feature of this system, i.e. /ɒ/, /i/, and /u/ are phonologically long or bimoraic whereas /æ/, /e/, and /o/ are phonologically short or monomoraic.

There are also some studies which consider quality and quantity to be both active in the Iranian system (e.g. Toosarvandani 2004). This view offers a synthetic analysis which includes both quality and quantity, often suggesting that modern Persian vowels are in a transition state between the quantitative system of classical Persian and a hypothetical future Persian which will eliminate all traces of quantity, and retain quality as the only active feature.

The length distinction is nevertheless strictly observed by careful reciters of classic-style poetry, for all varieties (including the Tajik).

Consonants

(Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant. Allophones are in parentheses.)

Grammar

Morphology

• Persian is the only agglutinative^{[48][49][50][51][52]} Iranian language.
• Persian and Armenian are the only agglutinative Indo-European languages.
• Suffixes predominate Persian morphology, though there is a small number of prefixes.^[53] Verbs can express tense and aspect, and they agree with the subject in person and number.^[54] There is no grammatical gender in Persian, nor are pronouns marked for natural gender.

Syntax

Normal declarative sentences are structured as "(S) (PP) (O) V". This means sentences can comprise optional subjects, prepositional phrases, and objects, followed by a required verb. If the object is specific, then the object is followed by the word rā and precedes prepositional phrases: "(S) (O + rā) (PP) V".^[54]

Vocabulary

Native word formation

Persian makes extensive use of word building and combining affixes, stems, nouns and adjectives. Persian frequently uses derivational agglutination to form new words from nouns, adjectives, and verbal stems. New words are extensively formed by compounding – two existing words combining into a new one, as is common in German. Professor Mahmoud Hessaby demonstrated that Persian can derive 226 million words.^[55]

Influences

While having a lesser influence on Arabic^[11] and other languages of Mesopotamia and its core vocabulary being of Middle Persian origin,^[8] New Persian contains a considerable amount of Arabic lexical items,^[5][10][12] which were Persianized^[13] and often took a different meaning and usage than the Arabic original. Persian loanwords of Arabic origin especially include Islamic terms. The Arabic vocabulary in other Iranic, Turkic and Indic languages are generally understood to be have been copied from New Persian.^[56]

John R. Perry in his article "Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" indicates his belief that the overall range of Arabic synonyms vocabulary used along or interchangeable with their equivalents Persian words varies from 2% frequency in the Shahnama,^[57] 14% in material culture,^[58] 24% in intellectual life^[58] to 40% of everyday literary activity.^[58] Most of the Arabic words used in Persian are either synonyms of native terms^[58] or could be (and often have been) glossed in Persian.^[58] The Arabic vocabulary in Persian is thus suppletive,^[58] rather than basic and has enriched New Persian.

The inclusion of Mongolian and Turkic elements in the Persian language should also be mentioned,^[59] not only because of the political role a succession of Turkic dynasties played in Iranian history, but also because of the immense prestige Persian language and literature enjoyed in the wider (non-Arab) Islamic world, which was often ruled by sultans and emirs with a Turkic background. The Turkish and Mongolian vocabulary in Persian is minor in comparison to that of Arabic and these words were mainly confined to military, pastoral terms and political sector (titles, administration, etc.).^[60] New military and political titles were coined based partially on Middle Persian (e.g. Artesh for army instead of Qoshun, Sarlashkar, DaryaBaan, etc.) in the 20th century. Persian has likewise influenced the vocabularies of other languages, especially other Indo-Iranian languages like Urdu and to a lesser extent Hindi, etc., as well as Turkic languages like Ottoman Turkish, Chagatai language, Tatar language, Turkish,^[61] Turkmen, Azeri^[62] and Uzbek, Afro-Asiatic languages like Assyrian and Arabic,^[63] and even Dravidian languages especially Telugu and Brahui. Persian has also had a significant lexical influence, via Turkish, on Serbian/Croatian/Bosnian/Serbo-Croati an, particularly as spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Use of occasional foreign synonyms instead of Persian words can be a common practice in everyday communications as an alternative expression. In some instances in addition to the Persian vocabulary, the equivalent synonyms from multiple foreign languages can be used. For example, in Iranian colloquial Persian (but not in Afghanistan or Tajikistan), the phrase "thank you" may be expressed using the French word merci (stressed however on the first syllable), the hybrid Persian-Arabic word motešakkeram (motešakker being merciful in Arabic and -am meaning I am in Persian), or by the pure Persian word sepāsgozāram.

Orthography

Example showing Nastaʿlīq's (Persian) proportion rules.^{[ 1 ]}

Dehkhoda's personal handwriting; a typical cursive Persian script.

The vast majority of modern Iranian Persian and Dari text is written with the Arabic script. Tajik, which is considered by some linguists to be a Persian dialect influenced by Russian and the Turkic languages of Central Asia,^[64][65] is written with the Cyrillic script in Tajikistan (see Tajik alphabet).

Persian alphabet

Modern Iranian Persian and Afghan Persian are written using a modified variant of the Arabic alphabet (see Persian alphabet), which uses different pronunciation and additional letters not found in Arabic. Tajik Persian, as used in Tajikistan, is typically written in a modified version of the Cyrillic alphabet. There are also Persian Romanizations like Desphilic, Unipers and Fingilish/Pinglish for writing Persian using Latin alphabet. After the conversion of Persia to Islam (see Islamic conquest of Iran), it took approximately 150 years before Persians adopted the Arabic script in place of the older alphabet. Previously, two different scripts were used, Pahlavi, used for Middle Persian, and the Avestan alphabet (in Persian, Dîndapirak or Din Dabire—literally: religion script), used for religious purposes, primarily for the Avestan language but sometimes for Middle Persian.

In modern Persian script, vowels that are referred to as short vowels (a, e, o) are usually not written; only the long vowels (â, i, u) are represented in the text, so words distinguished from each other only by short vowels are ambiguous in writing: kerm "worm", karam "generosity", kerem "cream", and krom "chrome" are all spelled "krm" in Persian. The reader must determine the word from context. The Arabic system of vocalization marks known as harakat is also used in Persian, although some of the symbols have different pronunciations. For example, an Arabic damma is pronounced [ʊ~u], while in Iranian Persian it is pronounced [o]. This system is not used in mainstream Persian literature; it is primarily used for teaching and in some (but not all) dictionaries.

It is also worth noting that there are several letters generally only used in Arabic loanwords. These letters are pronounced the same as similar Persian letters. For example, there are four functionally identical 'z' letters (ز ذ ض ظ), three 's' letters (س ص ث), two 't' letters (ط ت), etc.

Additions

The Persian alphabet adds four letters to the Arabic alphabet:

(The že is pronounced with the same sound as the "s" in "measure" and "fusion", or the "z" in "azure".)

Variations

The Persian alphabet also modifies some letters from the Arabic alphabet. For example, alef with hamza below ( إ ) changes to alef ( ا ); words using various hamzas get spelled with yet another kind of hamza (so that مسؤول becomes مسئول); and teh marbuta ( ة ) changes to heh ( ه ) or teh ( ت ).

The letters different in shape are:

Writing the letters in their original Arabic form is not typically considered to be incorrect,^{[citation needed]} but is not normally done.

Latin alphabet

The International Organization for Standardization has published a standard for simplified transliteration of Persian into Latin, ISO 233-3, titled "Information and documentation – Transliteration of Arabic characters into Latin characters – Part 3: Persian language – Simplified transliteration"^[66] but the transliteration scheme is not in widespread use.

Another Latin alphabet, based on the Uniform Turkic alphabet, was used in Tajikistan in the 1920s and 1930s. The alphabet was phased out in favour of Cyrillic in the late 1930s.^[64]

Fingilish is the name given to texts written in Persian using ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is most commonly used in chat, emails and SMS applications. The orthography is not standardized, and varies among writers and even media (for example, typing 'aa' for the [ɒ] phoneme is easier on computer keyboards than on cellphone keyboards, resulting in smaller usage of the combination on cellphones).

UniPers, short for the Universal Persian Alphabet (Fârsiye Jahâni) is a Latin-based alphabet popularized by Mohamed Keyvan, who used it in a number of Persian textbooks for foreigners and travellers.^[67]

The International Persian Alphabet (Pársik) is another Latin-based alphabet developed in recent years mainly by A. Moslehi, a comparative linguist.^[68]

Persá is yet another Latin-based alphabet that has been recently^[when?] developed using new characters to represent sounds unique to the Persian language.

Desphilic is also a romanization which uses ordinary Latin character set for romanization of Persian.

Tajik alphabet

Tajik advertisement for an academy.

The Cyrillic alphabet was introduced for writing the Tajik language under the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic in the late 1930s, replacing the Latin alphabet that had been used since the Bolshevik revolution and the Persian script that had been used earlier. After 1939, materials published in Persian in the Persian script were banned from the country.^[64][69]

Examples

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Please note that the Tajik text is different from that of the Iranian Persian:

See also

• Academy of Persian Language and Literature
• Dari (Persian)
• Daftar/Tabel -- English words of Persian origin
• Daftar/Tabel -- French loanwords in Persian
• Daftar/Tabel -- Persian poets and authors
• Persian alphabet
• Persian braille
• Persian grammar
• Persian literature
• Persian mythology
• Persian name
• Persian phonology
• Persianate
• Persian Romanization schemes
• Southwestern Iranian dialects
• Tajik language
• Gender-neutrality in genderless languages

References

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Samadi, Habibeh; Nick Perkins (2012). In Martin Ball, David Crystal, Paul Fletcher. Assessing Grammar: The Languages of Lars. Multilingual Matters. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-84769-637-3. 
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Windfuhr, Gernot. The Iranian Languages. Routledge. 2009. p. 418.
3. ^ Asta Olesen, "Islam and Politics in Afghanistan, Volume 3", Psychology Press, 1995. pg 205: "There began a general promotion of the Pashto language at the expense of Farsi – previously dominant at the educational and administrative level – and the term 'Dari' for the Afghan version of Farsi came into common use, being officially adopted in 1958"
4. ^ Mona Baker, Kirsten Malmkjr , "Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies", pg 518: "among them the realignment of Central Asian Persian, renamed Tajiki by the Soviet Union," [1]
5. ^ ^{a b c d e} Lazard, Gilbert 1975, "The Rise of the New Persian Language" in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. "The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Farsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran."
6. ^ Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill, "Sociolinguistics Hsk 3/3 Series Volume 3 of Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society", Walter de Gruyter, 2006. 2nd edition. pg 1912. Excerpt: "Middle Persian, also called Pahlavi is a direct continuation of old Persian, and was used as the written official language of the country." "However, after the Moslem conquest and the collapse of the Sassanids, the Pahlavi language was gradually replaced by Dari, a variety of Middle Persian, with considerable loan elements from Arabic and Parthian."
7. ^ Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). Encyclopedia Iranica,"Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts, "new Persian, is "the descendant of Middle Persian" and has been "official language of Iranian states for centuries", whereas for other non-Persian Iranian languages "close genetic relationships are difficult to establish" between their different (Middle and Modern) stages. Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bactrian may be closely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); and Wakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese."
8. ^ ^{a b c} Richard Davis, "Persian" in Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach, "Medieval Islamic Civilization", Taylor & Francis, 2006. pp. 602–603. "The grammar of New Persian is similar to many contemporary European languages."Similarly, the core vocabulary of Persian continued to be derived from Pahlavi.
9. ^ ^{a b c} Encyclopædia Britannica: Persian literature, retrieved Sept. 2011.
10. ^ ^{a b} Lazard, Gilbert, "Pahlavi, Pârsi, dari: Les langues d'Iran d'apès Ibn al-Muqaffa" in R.N. Frye, Iran and Islam. In Memory of the late Vladimir Minorsky, Edinburgh University Press, 1971.
11. ^ ^{a b} Nushin Namazi (2008-11-24). "Persian Loan Words in Arabic". http://cgi.stanford.edu/group/wais/cg i-bin/?p=24327. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
12. ^ ^{a b} Classe, Olive (2000). Encyclopedia of literary translation into English. Taylor & Francis. p. 1057. ISBN 1-884964-36-2, ISBN 978-1-884964-36-7. "Since the Arab conquest of the country in 7th century AD, many loan words have entered the language (which from this time has been written with a slightly modified version of the Arabic script) and the literature has been heavily influenced by the conventions of Arabic literature." 
13. ^ ^{a b} Ann K. S. Lambton, Persian grammar, Cambridge University Press 1953. "The Arabic words incorporated into the Persian language have become Persianized".
14. ^ Windfuhr, Gernot (1987). In Berard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 523–546. ISBN 978-0-19-506511-4. 
15. ^ Or (زبان فارسی‎ zabān-e fārsi
16. ^ Or (فارسی دری \ فارسئ دری‎ fārsi-ye dari
17. ^ See Dari – Geographical distribution
18. ^ Or (забони тоҷикӣ‎ / فارسی تاجیکی‎ zabon-i tojiki
19. ^ See Tajik language – Geographical distribution
20. ^ Oxford English Dictionary online, s.v. "Persian", draft revision June 2007.
21. ^ ^{a b} Oxford English Dictionary online, s.v. "Pārsi".
22. ^ Cannon, Garland Hampton and Kaye, Alan S. (1994) The Arabic contributions to the English language: an historical dictionary Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany, page 106, ISBN 3-447-03491-2
23. ^ Odisho, Edward Y. (2005) Techniques of teaching comparative pronunciation in Arabic and English Gorgias Press, Piscataway, New Jersey, page 23 ISBN 1-59333-272-6
24. ^ Pejman Akbarzadeh (2005). ""Farsi" or "Persian"?". http://heritage.chn.ir/en/Article/?id =88. Retrieved 2007-02-20.
25. ^ For example: A. Gharib, M. Bahar, B. Fooroozanfar, J. Homaii, and R. Yasami. Farsi Grammar. Jahane Danesh, 2nd edition, 2001.
26. ^ "Pronouncement of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature". Heritage.chn.ir. 2005-11-19. http://heritage.chn.ir/en/Article/?id =88. Retrieved 2010-07-13.
27. ^ "Persian or Farsi?". Iranian.com. 1997-11-16. http://www.iranian.com/Features/Dec97 /Persian/. Retrieved 2010-09-23.
28. ^ "Fársi: "recently appeared language!"". PersianDirect.com. 2005-02-15. http://www.persiandirect.com/articles /2004/july/id_00003.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-23.
29. ^ "Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: fas". Sil.org. http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documenta tion.asp?id=fas. Retrieved 2010-07-13.
30. ^ "Code PRS". Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_langua ge.asp?code=prs. Retrieved 2010-07-13.
31. ^ "Code PES". Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_langua ge.asp?code=pes. Retrieved 2010-07-13.
32. ^ "Kamran Talattof Persian or Farsi? The debate continues". Iranian.com. 1997-12-16. http://www.iranian.com/Features/Dec97 /Persian/. Retrieved 2010-07-13.
33. ^ (Skjaervo 2006) vi(2). Documentation.
34. ^ cf. (Skjaervo 2006) vi(2). Documentation. Excerpt: Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bac-trian may be closely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); and Wakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese.
35. ^ ^{a b} cf. (Skjaervo 2006) vi(2). Documentation. Excerpt 1: Only the official languages Old, Middle, and New Persian represent three stages of one and the same language, whereas close genetic relationships are difficult to establish between other Middle and Modern Iranian languages. Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bac-trian may be closely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); and Wakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese. Excerpt 2: New Persian, the descendant of Middle Persian and official language of Iranian states for centuries..
36. ^ Comrie, Bernard (1990) The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, Taylor & Francis,p. 82
37. ^ Barbara M. Horvath, Paul Vaughan, Community languages, 1991, 276 p.
38. ^ L. Paul (2005), "The Language of the Shahnameh in historical and dialetical perspective" pg 150:"The language of the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance of continuous historical development from Middle to New Persian" in Dieter Weber, D. N. MacKenzie, Languages of Iran: past and present: Iranian studies in memoriam David Neil MacKenzie, Volume 8 of Iranica Series, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. [2]
39. ^ Jeremias, Eva M. (2004). "Iran, iii. (f). New Persian". Encyclopaedia of Islam 12 (New Edition, Supplement ed.). p. 432. ISBN 90-04-13974-5. 
40. ^ ^{a b c} Johanson, Lars, and Christiane Bulut. 2006. Turkic-Iranian contact areas: historical and linguistic aspects. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
41. ^ ^{a b} Jackson, A. V. Williams. 1920. Early Persian poetry, from the beginnings down to the time of Firdausi. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp.17–19. (in Public Domain
42. ^ Jackson, A. V. Williams.pp.17–19.
43. ^ Adamec, Ludwig W. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan (4th Revised ed.). Scarecrow. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-8108-7815-0. 
44. ^ John Andrew Boyle, Some thoughts on the sources for the Il-Khanid period of Persian history, in Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies, British Institute of Persian Studies, vol. 12 (1974), p. 175.
45. ^ Clawson, Patrick (2004). Eternal Iran. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 6. ISBN 1-4039-6276-6. 
46. ^ "Language Family Trees – Persian". Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family .asp?subid=90035. Retrieved 2010-07-13.
47. ^ Perry, J. R. (2005) A Tajik Persian Reference Grammar (Boston : Brill) ISBN 90-04-14323-8
48. ^ http://195.178.225.22/CSmsl/msl/Kshan ovski.pdf (persian is agglutinative tong)
49. ^ Janse, Mark (2009-01-01). "Watkins' Law and the Development of Agglutinative Inflections in Asia Minor Greek | Mark Janse". Academia.edu. http://www.academia.edu/695480/Watkin s_Law_and_the_Development_of_Agglutin ative_Inflections_in_Asia_Minor_Greek. Retrieved 2012-12-18.
50. ^ Haspelmath, Martin; KШnig, Ekkehard; Oesterreicher, Wulf; Raible, Wolfgang ... – Martin Haspelmath – Google Livres. Books.google.fr. Retrieved 2012-12-18. 
51. ^ Name (required) (2009-06-16). "Language Profile: Farsi « A.C.E. – Associates in Cultural Exchange Blog". Acebook.wordpress.com. http://acebook.wordpress.com/2009/06/ 16/language-profile-farsi/. Retrieved 2012-12-18.
52. ^ "Transcription of the Persian Language in Electronic Format". Docstoc.com. 2009-04-22. http://www.docstoc.com/docs/5597755/T ranscription-of-the-Persian-Language- in-Electronic-Format. Retrieved 2012-12-18.
53. ^ Megerdoomian, Karine (2000). "Persian computational morphology: A unification-based approach". Memoranda in Computer and Cognitive Science: MCCS-00-320. pp. 1. http://www.zoorna.org/papers/MCCS320. pdf.
54. ^ ^{a b} Mahootian, Shahrzad (1997). Persian. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-02311-4. 
55. ^ Fareiran.com / فرايران
56. ^ John R. Perry, "Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" in Éva Ágnes Csató, Eva Agnes Csato, Bo Isaksson, Carina Jahani, Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic, Routledge, 2005. pg 97: "It is generally understood that the bulk of the Arabic vocabulary in the central, contingous [sic?] Iranic, Turkic and Indic languages was originally borrowed into literary Persian between the ninth and thirteenth century"
57. ^ John Perry, Encyclopedia Iranica, "Arabic Words in ŠĀH-NĀMA "
58. ^ ^{a b c d e f} John R. Perry, "Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" in Éva Ágnes Csató, Eva Agnes Csato, Bo Isaksson, Carina Jahani, Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic,Routledge, 2005. excerpt:"A dictionary based sample yields an inventory of approximately 8000 Arabic loanwords in current standard Persian or about forty percent of an everyday literary vocabulary of 20,000 words, not counting compounds and deravitives." excerpt: "In a random experiment, the Arabic Vocabulary of material culture was 14% while that of intellectual life was 24% percent in Persian." excerpt:"Most of the Arabic loans in Persian are either synonyms of attested native terms (as Arabic Mariz; Persian Bimar 'sick') or could be (and often have been) glossed in Persian native morphs (as Arabic ta'lim va tarbiyat 'education' was later replaced by Amuzesh o Parvaresh). Arabic vocabulary in Persian is thus suppletive, rather than basic."
59. ^ e.g. The role of Azeri-Turkish in Iranian Persian, on which see John Perry, "The Historical Role of Turkish in Relation to Persian of Iran", Iran & the Caucasus, Vol. 5 (2001), pp. 193–200.
60. ^ Xavier Planhol, "Land of Iran", Encyclopedia Iranica. "The Turks, on the other hand, posed a formidable threat: their penetration into Iranian lands was considerable, to such an extent that vast regions adapted their language. This process was all the more remarkable since, in spite of their almost uninterrupted political domination for nearly 1,000 years, the cultural influence of these rough nomads on Iran’s refined civilization remained extremely tenuous. This is demonstrated by the mediocre linguistic contribution, for which exhaustive statistical studies have been made (Doerfer). The number of Turkish or Mongol words that entered Persian, though not negligible, remained limited to 2,135, i.e., 3 percent of the vocabulary at the most. These new words are confined on the one hand to the military and political sector (titles, administration, etc.) and, on the other hand, to technical pastoral terms. The contrast with Arab influence is striking. While cultural pressure of the Arabs on Iran had been intense, they in no way infringed upon the entire Iranian territory, whereas with the Turks, whose contributions to Iranian civilization were modest, vast regions of Iranian lands were assimilated, notwithstanding the fact that resistance by the latter was ultimately victorious. Several reasons may be offered."
61. ^ Andreas Tietze, Persian loanwords in Anatolian Turkish, Oriens, 20 (1967) pp- 125–168. Archive.org
62. ^ L. Johanson, "Azerbaijan: Iranian Elements in Azeri Turkish" in Encyclopedia Iranica Iranica.com
63. ^ Pasad. "Bashgah.net". Bashgah.net. http://www.bashgah.net/modules.php?na me=News&file=article&sid=2384 5. Retrieved 2010-07-13.
64. ^ ^{a b c} Perry, John R. (2005). A Tajik Persian Reference Grammar. Boston: Brill. ISBN 90-04-14323-8. 
65. ^ Lazard, Gilbert (1956). "Charactères distinctifs de la langue Tadjik". Bulletin de la Société Linguistique de Paris 52: 117–186. 
66. ^ "ISO 233-3:1999". Iso.org. 2010-05-14. http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/ catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csn umber=2398. Retrieved 2010-07-13.
67. ^ "UniPers.com". UniPers.com. http://www.unipers.com/. Retrieved 2010-07-13.
68. ^ Pársik tutor, persiandirect.com
69. ^ Smallwars.quantico.usmc.mil

Further reading

English

• John Richardson (1810). In Sir Charles Wilkins, David Hopkins. A vocabulary, Persian, Arabic, and English: abridged from the quarto edition of Richardson's dictionary. Printed for F. and C. Rivingson. p. 643. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Muḥammad Ibrâhîm (1841). A grammar of the Persian language. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Edward Henry Palmer (1883). In Guy Le Strange. A concise dictionary, English-Persian; together with a simplified grammar of the Persian language. Completed and ed. by G. Le Strange. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Edward Henry Palmer (1883). In Guy Le Strange. A concise dictionary, English-Persian: together with a simplified grammar of the Persian language. Trübner. p. 42. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Arthur Naylor Wollaston (1882). An English-Persian dictionary. W.H. Allen. p. 462. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Arthur Naylor Wollaston (sir.) (1882). An English-Persian dictionary. W.H. Allen. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• William Thornhill Tucker (1850). A pocket dictionary of English and Persian. J. Madden. p. 145. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• William Thornhill Tucker (1801). A pocket dictionary of English and Persian. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• William Thornhill Tucker (1850). A pocket dictionary of English and Persian. J. Madden. p. 145. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• John Thompson Platts (1894). A grammar of the Persian language .... Williams and Norgate. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Friedrich Rosen, Nāṣir al-Dīn Shāh (Shah of Iran) (1898). Modern Persian colloquial grammar: containing a short grammar, dialogues and extracts from Nasir-Eddin shah's diaries, tales, etc., and a vocabulary. Luzac & C.̊. p. 400. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Edward Moises (1792). The Persian interpreter: in three parts: A grammar of the Persian language. Persian extracts, in prose and verse. A vocabulary: Persian and English. Printed by L. Hodgson. p. 143. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Arthur Henry Bleeck (1857). A concise grammar of the Persian language. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Arthur Henry Bleeck (1857). A concise grammar of the Persian language: containing dialogues, reading lessons, and a vocabulary: together with a new plan for facilitating the study of languages. B. Quaritch. p. 206. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Arthur Henry Bleeck (1857). A concise grammar of the Persian language (Oxford University ed.). Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Duncan Forbes (1844). A grammar of the Persian language: To which is added, a selection of easy extracts for reading, together with a copious vocabulary (2 ed.). Printed for the author, sold by Allen & co. p. 158. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Duncan Forbes (1844). A grammar of the Persian language: To which is added, a selection of easy extracts for reading, together with a copious vocabulary (2 ed.). Printed for the author, sold by Allen & co. p. 114. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Duncan Forbes (1876). A grammar of the Persian language: to which is added, a selection of easy extracts for reading, together with a vocabulary, and translations. W.H. Allen. p. 238. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Duncan Forbes (1869). A grammar of the Persian language: to which is added, a selection of easy extracts for reading, together with a vocabulary, and translations (4 ed.). W.H. Allen & co. p. 238. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Matthew Lumsden (1810). A grammar of the Persian language; comprising a portion of the elements of Arabic inflexion etc. Watley. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Matthew Lumsden (1810). A grammar of the Persian language: comprising a portion of the elements of Arabic inflexion, Volume 1. Printed by T. Watley. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Sorabshaw Byramji Doctor (1880). The student's Persian and English dictionary, pronouncing, etymological, & explanatory. Irish Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 558. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Sorabshaw Byramji Doctor, Saʻdī (1880). Second book of Persian, to which are added the Pandnámah of Shaikh Saádi and the Gulistán, chapter 1, together with vocabulary and short notes (2 ed.). Irish Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 120. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Sorabshaw Byramji Doctor (1879). The Persian primer, being an elementary treatise on grammar, with exercises. Irish Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 94. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Sorabshaw Byramji Doctor (1879). The Persian primer, being an elementary treatise on grammar, with exercises. Irish Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 94. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Sorabshaw Byramji Doctor (1875). A new grammar of the Persian tongue for the use of schools and colleges. Irish Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 84. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• George Speirs Alexander Ranking (1907). A primer of Persian: containing selections for reading and composition with the elements of syntax. The Claredon Press. p. 72. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• George Speirs Alexander Ranking (1907). A primer of Persian: containing selections for reading and composition with the elements of syntax. The Claredon Press. p. 72. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Sir William Jones, Samuel Lee (1823). A grammar of the Persian language (8 ed.). Printed by W. Nicol, for Parbury, Allen, and co. p. 230. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Sir William Jones, Samuel Lee (1823). A grammar of the Persian language (8 ed.). Printed by W. Nicol, for Parbury, Allen, and co. p. 230. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Sir William Jones (1828). In Samuel Lee. A grammar of the Persian language (9 ed.). Printed by W. Nicol, for Parbury, Allen, and Co. p. 283. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Sir William Jones (1783). A grammar of the Persian language (3 ed.). Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Sir William Jones (1801). A grammar of the Persian language (5 ed.). Murray and Highley, J. Sewell. p. 194. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Sir William Jones (1797). A grammar of the Persian language (4 ed.). Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Ramdhun Sen (1841). In Madhub Chunder Sen. A dictionary in Persian and English, with pronunciation (ed. by M.C. Sen). (2 ed.). Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Ramdhun Sen (1829). A dictionary in Persian and English. Printed for the author at the Baptist Mission Press. p. 226. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Ramdhun Sen (1833). A dictionary in English and Persian. Printed at the Baptist Mission Press. p. 276. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 
• Ramdhun Sen (1833). A dictionary in English and Persian. Retrieved 2011-07-06. 

1. Thackston, W. M. (1993-05-01). An Introduction to Persian (3rd Rev ed.). Ibex Publishers. ISBN 0936347295. 
2. Mace, John (1993-03). Modern Persian (Teach Yourself). Teach Yourself. ISBN 0844238155. 
3. Mace, John (2002-10-18). Persian Grammar: For Reference and Revision (illustrated ed.). RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0700716955. 
4. Schmitt, Rüdiger (1989). Compendium linguarum Iranicarum. L. Reichert. ISBN 3882264136. 
5. Windfuhr, Gernot L. (2009-01-15). "Persian". In Bernard Comrie (ed.). The World's Major Languages (2 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0415353394. 
6. Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). "Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts". Encyclopaedia Iranica 13. 
7. Asatrian, Garnik (Expected November 2010). Etymological Dictionary of Persian. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, 12. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-15496-4. 

Other Languages

1. Lazard, Gilbert (January 2006). Grammaire du persan contemporain. Institut Français de Recherche en Iran. ISBN 978-2909961378. 
2. Dahlén, Ashk (October 2010). Modern persisk grammatik. Ferdosi International Publication. ISBN 9789197724180. 

External links

• Modern Persian to Persian dictionary
• Academy of Persian Language and Literature official website (Persian)
• Assembly for the Expansion of the Persian Language official website (Persian)
• Persian language Resources (Persian)
• Persian audio lessons at WikiBabel
• Hayyim, Sulayman. New Persian–English dictionary. Teheran: Librairie-imprimerie Beroukhim, 1934–1936. uchicago.edu
• Steingass, Francis Joseph. A Comprehensive Persian–English dictionary. London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1892. uchicago.edu
• Persian language department at University of Texas at Austin, utexas.edu
• Virtual Persian Keyboard, choone.com
• UCLA Language Materials Project: Persian, ucla.edu
• Persian Language Resources, parstimes.com
• Persian-Farsi – site for studying persian, Persian-farsi.ucoz.ru (Russian)
• Iran language Institute, ili.ir
• GlobalDic.Com the only dynamic Persian to English and German Dictionary
• German Persian Dictionary with 120,000 entries, Persian.free-dict.de
• A Persian Verb calculator, jahanshiri.ir
• Persian Verb Conjugator, sartre2.byu.edu